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Author biographies Jeffrey R. Spence is an assistant professor of industrial/organizational psychology at the University of Guelph, Canada. He received his PhD in industrial/organizational psychology from the University of Waterloo, Canada. His primary research interests focus on employee performance appraisals, intraindividual processes, organizational citizenship behavior, and workplace deviance.

His work has been published in journals such as Journal of Management, Journal of Organizational Behavior, and Human Resource Management Review. Lisa Keeping is an associate professor of organizational behavior and human resource management in the School of Business & Economics at Wilfrid Laurier University. She received her PhD from the University of Akron.

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Her research focuses on performance appraisal, leadership, and employee selection. Employee performance appraisals are complex events in organizations. They occur in contextually rich environments and have implications for careers, training opportunities, remuneration, and interpersonal relationships. For years, the study of performance appraisals has mirrored this complexity and has revealed a multitude of variables that can influence the accuracy of performance ratings.

Of late, the importance of managers’ intentions as a determinant of performance ratings has gained prominence. What is less understood is where these intentions come from and what determines their relative strength or weakness. In the current paper, we present a model that explains the simultaneous presence and strength of multiple rating intentions that managers can have when rating employee performance. The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179– 211., Ajzen, I., Driver, B. Contingent value measurement: On the nature and meaning of willingness to pay.

Journal of Consumer Psychology, 1, 297– 316., Ajzen, I., Fishbein, M. Attitude–behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research.

Psychological Bulletin, 84, 888– 918., Ajzen, I., Fishbein, M. The influence of attitudes on behavior. In Albarracin, D., Johnson, B. T., Zanna, M. (Eds.), The handbook of attitudes (pp. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. J., Conner, M.

Efficacy of the theory of planned behavior: A Meta-analytic review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 471– 499., Arvey, R. D., Murphy, K. Performance evaluation in work settings. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 141– 168., Austin, J. T., Villanova, P. The criterion problem: 1917–1992.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 836– 874., Banks, C., Murphy, K. Toward narrowing the research–practice gap in performance appraisal. Personnel Psychology, 38, 335– 345., Bass, B. Reducing leniency in merit ratings. Personnel Psychology, 9, 359– 369., Bates, R. Liking and similarity as predictors of multi-source ratings. Personnel Review, 31 (5–6), 540– 553., Bernardin, H., Beatty, R.

Performance Appraisal: Assessing human behavior at work. Boston, MA: Kent. Bernardin, J., Cooke, D., Villanova, P. Conscientiousness and agreeableness as predictors of rating leniency.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 232– 236., Bernardin, H., Orban, J., Carlyle, J. Performance ratings as a function of trust in appraisal and rater individual differences. Proceedings of the Academy of Management Meetings, 311– 315., Bernardin, H., Villanova, P. Research streams in rater self-efficacy.

Group & Organization Management, 30, 61– 88., Cardy, R., Dobbins, G. Affect and appraisal accuracy: Liking as an integral dimension in evaluating performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 672– 678., Cleveland, J., Murphy, K. Analyzing performance appraisal as goal-directed behavior. In Ferris, G., Rowland, K. (Eds.), Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management (pp. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Cox, T., Nkomo, S. Differential performance appraisal criteria: A field study of Black and White managers.

Group and Organizational Studies, 11, 101– 119., Czajka, J. M., DeNisi, A. Effects of emotional disability and clear performance standards on performance ratings. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 394– 404., DeNisi, A.

S., Pritchard, R. Performance appraisal, performance management and improving individual performance: A motivational framework.

Management and Organization Review, 2, 253– 277., Dipboye, R. Some neglected variables in research on discrimination in appraisals. Academy of Management Review, 10, 116– 127. H., Cardy, R.

L., Truxillo, D. Effect of rate sex and purpose of appraisal on the accuracy of performance. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 7, 225– 241., Elliott, M.

A., Armitage, C. J., Baughan, C. Drivers’ compliance with speed limits: An application of the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 964– 972., Farr, J. Performance appraisal. In Koppes, L.

(Ed.), Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology (pp. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. H., Latham, G. Effects of training and rating scales on rating errors. Personnel Psychology, 35, 105– 117., Ferris, G. R., Yates, V. L., Gilmore, D.

C., Rowland, K. The influence of subordinate age on performance ratings and causal attributions.

Personnel Psychology, 38, 545– 557., Fisher, D. Transmission of positive and negative feedback to subordinates: A laboratory investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 533– 540., Fuegen, K., Biernat, M., Haines, E., Deaux, K. Mothers and fathers in the workplace: How gender and parental status influence judgments of job-related competence. Journal of Social Issues, 60, 737– 754., Glickman, A. Effects of negatively skewed ratings on motivations of the rated.

Personnel Psychology, 8, 39– 47., Guilford, J. Psychometric methods ( 2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Rater motivation in the performance appraisal context: A theoretical framework. Journal of Management, 20, 737– 756., Ilgen, D.

R, Barnes-Farrell, J. L., McKellin, D.

Performance appraisal process research in the 1980s: What has it contributed to appraisals in use? Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 54, 321– 368., Ilgen, D. R., Davis, C. Bearing bad news: Reactions to negative performance feedback. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 49, 550– 565., Ilgen, D., Knowlton, W. Performance attributional effects on feedback from superiors.

Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 25, 441– 456., Jawahar, I. Do raters consider the influence of situational factors on the observation of performance when evaluating performance?

Evidence from three experiments. Group & Organization Management, 30, 6– 41., Jawahar, I. M., Williams, C. Where all the children are above average: The performance appraisal purpose effect. Personnel Psychology, 50, 905– 925., Kane, J.

A model of volitional rating behavior. Human Resource Management Review, 4, 283– 310., Kane, J., Bernardin, J., Villanova, P., Peyrefitte, J. Stability of rater leniency: Three studies.

Academy of Management Journal, 38, 1036– 1051., Kernis, M. Narcissism and reactions to interpersonal feedback. Journal of Research in Personality, 28, 4– 13., Klimoski, R., Inks, L. Accountability forces in performance appraisal. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 45, 194– 208., Kraiger, K., Ford, K. A meta-analysis of ratee race effects in performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 56– 65., Landy, F., Farr, J.

Performance rating. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 72– 107., Landy, F., Farr, J.

The measurement of work performance: Methods, theory, and applications. New York, NY: Academic Press. The performance feedback process: A preliminary model. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 33, 42– 76., Lefkowitz, J. The role of interpersonal affective regard in supervisory performance ratings: A literature review and proposed causal model.

Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73, 67– 85., Longenecker, C., Sims, H., Gioia, D. Behind the mask: The politics of employee appraisal. The Academy of Management Executive, 1, 183– 193., McCrae, R., John, O. An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 60, 175– 215., McGregor, D.

An uneasy look at performance appraisal. Harvard Business Review, 35, 89– 94.

P., Guidice, R. M., Brownlee, A. Accountability in a performance appraisal context: The effect of audience and form of accounting on rater response and behavior. Journal of Management, 33, 223– 252., Mohrman, A., Lawler, E. Motivation and performance-appraisal behavior. In Landy, F., Zedeck, S., Cleveland, J. (Eds.), Performance measurement and theory (pp.

Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Dimensions of job performance. In Dillon, R. F., Pellegrino, J.W.

(Eds.), Testing: Theoretical and applied perspectives (pp. New York, NY: Praeger. Performance measurement and appraisal: Motivating managers to identify and reward performance. (Ed.), Performance measurement, evaluation, and incentives (pp. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School. Explaining the weak relationship between job performance and ratings of job performance. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 148– 160., Murphy, K.

R., Cleveland, J. Understanding performance appraisals. London, UK: Sage. R., Cleveland, J., Skattebo, A, Kinney, T. Raters who pursue difference goals give different ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 158– 164., Murphy, K.

R., Martin, C., Garcia, M. Do behavioral observation scales measure observation? Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 562– 567., Organ, D. Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

D., White, L. A., Oppler, S. H., Borman, W. Examination of race and sex effects on performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 770– 780., Roberts, T. A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S. Sex differences in reactions to evaluative feedback.

Sex Roles, 21, 725– 747., Robinson, S. L., Bennett, R. A typology of deviant workplace behaviors: A multidimensional scaling study. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 555– 572., Rotundo, M., Sackett, P. The relative importance of task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance to global ratings of job performance: A policy-capturing approach.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 66– 80., Salancik, G. R., Pfeffer, J. A social information processing approach to job attitudes and task design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23, 224– 253., Schmitt, N., Lappin, M. Race and sex as determinants of the mean and variance of performance ratings.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 428– 435., Sheeran, P. Intention–behavior relations: A conceptual and empirical review. In Stroebe, W., Hewstone, M. (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol.

London, UK: Wiley., Shore, L. M., Thornton, G. Effects of gender on self- and supervisory ratings. Academy of Management Journal, 29, 115– 129., Smither, J.

W., London, M., Reilly, R. Does performance improve following multisource feedback? A theoretical model, meta-analysis, and review of empirical findings. Personnel Psychology, 58, 33– 66., Spence, J. R., Keeping, L.

The consideration of non-performance information on ratings of job performance: A policy-capturing approach. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 587– 608., Spence, J. R., Keeping, L. Conscious rating distortion in performance appraisal: A review, commentary, and proposed framework for research. Human Resource Management Review, 21, 85– 95., Stockford, L., Bissel, H. Factors involved in establishing a merit-rating scale. Personnel, 26, 94– 116.

S., Sporer, S. When a grandiose self-image is threatened: Narcissism and self-concept clarity as predictors of negative emotions and aggression following ego-threat.

Journal of Personality, 70, 509– 532., Tetlock, P. Accountability and judgment processes in a personality prediction task.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 700– 709., Thompson, D. E., Thompson, T. Task-based performance appraisal for blue-collar jobs: Evaluation of race and sex effects.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 747– 753., Tziner, A., Murphy, K. Additional evidence of attitudinal influences in performance appraisal. Journal of Business and Psychology, 13, 407– 419., Tziner, A., Murphy, K., Cleveland, J. Does conscientiousness moderate the relationship between attitudes and beliefs regarding performance appraisal and rating behavior? International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 10, 218– 224., Van der Zee, K., Bakker, A.

B., Bakker, P. Why are structured interviews so rarely used in personnel selection?

Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 176– 184., Villanova, P., Bernardin, J. Impression management in the context of performance appraisal. In Giacalone, R., Rosenfeld, P. (Eds.), Impression management in the organization (pp. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Villanova, P., Bernardin, J., Dahmus, S., Sims, R.

Rater leniency and performance appraisal discomfort. Educational & Psychological Measurement, 53, 789– 799., Viswesvaran, C., Ones, D. S., Schmidt, F. Comparative analysis of reliability of job performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 557– 574., Viswesvaran, C., Schmidt, F.

Is there a general factor in ratings of job performance? A meta-analytic framework for disentangling substantive and error influences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 108– 131., Wang, X. E., Kwong, J. The roles of rater goals and rate performance levels in the distortion of performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 546– 561., Wayne, S. J., Liden, R.

Effects of impression management on performance ratings. A longitudinal study. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 232– 260., Webb, T. L., Sheeran, P. Does changing behavioral intentions engender behavior change? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence.

Psychological Bulletin, 132, 249– 268., Whisler, T. Performance appraisal and the organization man. The Journal of Business, 31, 19– 27., Wong, K. E., Kwong, J. Effects of rater goals on rating patterns: Evidence from an experimental field study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 577– 585.

Spence University of Guelph, Canada, Lisa M. Keeping Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada Author biographies Jeffrey R. Spence is an assistant professor of industrial/organizational psychology at the University of Guelph, Canada. He received his PhD in industrial/organizational psychology from the University of Waterloo, Canada. His primary research interests focus on employee performance appraisals, intraindividual processes, organizational citizenship behavior, and workplace deviance. His work has been published in journals such as Journal of Management, Journal of Organizational Behavior, and Human Resource Management Review.

Lisa Keeping is an associate professor of organizational behavior and human resource management in the School of Business & Economics at Wilfrid Laurier University. She received her PhD from the University of Akron. Her research focuses on performance appraisal, leadership, and employee selection.

HLC maintains a of approximately 1,600 faculty and administrators from institutions within its. Peer reviewers play an essential role in all stages of the accreditation process. They are responsible for assuring that institutions comply with HLC's, as well as for helping institutions advance within the context of their mission.

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